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== Region Profile: Climate, Geography, Socio-Economic Context ==
There are about 30,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean, only
2,000 of which are inhabited. Many of the populated
islands are less than 10 km2, while some, especially
atolls, are less than 1 km2. The 18 Pacific Island countries
and territories considered in this study account for
550,000 km2 of land and some 7 million inhabitants
spread across 180 million km2 of ocean – about 36% of
the earth’s surface. If [[Papua New Guinea]], a large island
country, is excluded, the land mass drops to 88,000 km2,
occupied by 2.6 million people. Of this population,
1.6 million live in Melanesia, 600,000 in Polynesia and
450,000 in Micronesia.
The climate of the small tropical Pacific islands depends
on location and season, but is usually hot and humid,
except in the cool
highlands of some
Melanesian islands. The
year in many areas is
equally divided between
the dry and wet seasons.
South of the equator in
Melanesia and Polynesia,
the dry season is from May
to October. The wet season,
which lasts the other six
months, can include a
period of cyclones in some
locations. North of the
equator in Micronesia,
these seasons are reversed.
Average annual rainfall
varies considerably in the
tropical Pacific, from over 4,000 mm to less than 500 mm. The higher altitudes of
volcanic islands receive more rain, with about a 10%
increase per 100 metre rise in elevation.
;Climate - Air-Sea Interactions and Frequent Storms
Two of the most important climatic influences on small
Pacific islands are tropical storms and the El Niño and
La Niña phenomena. The natural pattern of El Niño and
La Niña episodes has a significant impact on many small
islands, producing extensive wet and dry cycles. For
example, an El Niño event combined with other climatic
and oceanographic conditions brings abundant rainfall
in the central Pacific but can cause catastrophic drought
in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the other
Melanesian islands. The reverse condition, known as
La Niña, causes serious drought in the low equatorial
islands of western Kiribati.
In addition to problems stemming from existing climatic
variability, climate change and sea level rise could
significantly exacerbate the situation. Climate change
scenarios for the Pacific islands vary widely, depending
on location and the model used. Most models predict an
increase in frequency of El Niño episodes and intensity
of cyclones (World Bank, 2000). There is less certainty
about changes to rainfall, which could affect the
availability of freshwater resources, although a general
increase in sea temperature might favour an increase in
rainfall for very small islands. Current scenarios indicate
a rise in sea level of about 0.2 to 0.4 metres over the next
few decades. Even the slightest rise is of great concern for
small, low-lying island countries whose maximum
elevations are only a few meters above sea level. Tarawa
atoll in Kiribati has been the focus of impact studies
under various scenarios for sea level rise and climate
change. Results of groundwater modelling studies to
assess the combined effect of pumping, climate change and sea level rise indicate that the impact of initial sea
level rise on aquifers is not detrimental (World Bank,
2000). This is particularly so when they are compared with
the impact of current climate variability, pollution of
groundwater from human settlements and overpumping
(White et al., 2007).
Preliminary assessment of vulnerability and adaptation
in some Pacific island countries in relation to climate
change identified improved management and
maintenance of existing water supply systems as a high
priority, given the relatively low costs associated with
reducing system losses and improving water quality.
== Region Profile: Water Bodies and Resources ==
The limited freshwater supply in small Pacific islands is
used for various purposes, including for towns, industrial
activities, agriculture and forestry, tourism,
environmental needs and mining. Non-consumptive
uses include hydropower generation (e.g. in [[Fiji]], [[Samoa]]
and [[Vanuatu]]), navigation and recreation.
To meet growing demand, naturally occurring water
resources are supplemented with non-conventional ones.
The former are surface water, groundwater and rainwater
collection; the latter include desalination,
imports, wastewater recycling and use of seawater or
brackish water for selected purposes where potable water
is not needed.
Some islands, including in [[Fiji]] and [[Tonga]], have imported
water as an emergency measure during severe drought.
In some instances, people move from water-scarce
islands to others nearby with more water. On many
small islands, local or imported bottled water is an
alternative for drinking water, although it costs more
than water supplied by local water authorities.
Recycled wastewater is not a common source in small
island countries but is sometimes used to irrigate gardens
and recreational areas at tourist resorts and hotels,
notably in [[Fiji]] and [[Maldives]].
During severe droughts or after natural disasters, coconut
water can substitute for fresh drinking water. People on
some of the smaller outer islands of [[Fiji]], [[Kiribati]], the
[[Marshall Islands]] and [[Papua New Guinea]], for example,
have survived on coconuts during extremely dry periods.
The coconut palm is very salt-tolerant and can continue
to produce fruit even when groundwater turns brackish.
Per capita freshwater use varies considerably between
and within island states. It depends on availability,
quality, type and age of water distribution system,
cultural and socio-economic factors and administrative
procedures. Although typical water use is of the order of
50 to 150 litres per person per day, leakage in poorly
maintained systems can lead to unnecessarily high
consumption. Water supply to resorts can also account
for a high proportion of total water use on some small
islands or parts thereof. Daily personal consumption in
such resorts can be as high as 500 litres (UNESCO, 1991).
Many small islands, particularly coral atolls and small
limestone islands, generally do not have sufficient water
resources for irrigated agriculture, or suitable soil
conditions. Irrigation on small islands thus tends to occur
on a relatively minor scale except in cases like that of Fiji,
where agriculture – primarily water-intensive cultivation
of sugar cane as a cash crop – is the largest water user.
The use of seawater and brackish waters can conserve
valuable freshwater resources. For example, in densely
populated parts of Tarawa and Majuro (Marshall Islands),
dual pipe systems distribute freshwater and seawater.
Seawater or brackish well water is used for baths, power
plant cooling and firefighting, as well as in swimming
pools.
== Region Profile: Legal and Institutional Environment ==
<!-- INSTITUTIONS, STAKEHOLDERS AND ORGANIZATIONS OF THE WATER SECTOR; GOVERNMENT ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES; DOMESTIC WATER LEGISLATION, REGULATIONS AND POLICIES; INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS; ETC -->
;Highly Complex and Rooted in Tradition
Water governance in small islands is highly complex
because of socio-political and cultural structures related
to tradition. Many inherited practices, rights and
interests concerning the extended family, community, or
tribal and inter-island relations may conflict
with the demands of urbanized societies. Addressing
related difficulties requires political will and institutional
reform at all levels to create a framework for integrated
water resources management ([[IWRM]]), as well as
behavioural change through long term awareness and advocacy campaigns, education, training and
the like.
[[IWRM]] is a relatively new concept for Pacific island
countries, and the formal development of this holistic
approach within national governance structures is not
widespread. Only a few countries have started drafting
national IWRM plans. Yet the underlying approach,
which involves taking socio-cultural, technical, economic
and environmental factors into account in the
development and management of water resources, has
existed in traditional practices for centuries in Pacific
island countries. In addition, since the 1990s it has been
increasingly recognized that IWRM is necessary to
adequately address competing water demands sustainably.
The major governance-related difficulties facing Pacific
island countries are fragmented management structure,
with multiple agencies dealing with water resources; lack
of an overarching policy; outdated laws; poor
administration capacity for integration, stemming from
insufficient interministerial cooperation; and inadequate
budgetary resources allocated to the water sector
(PIFS/SOPAC, 2005). These combine to hamper progress
towards preparation of water use efficiency plans and
application of IWRM.
== Region Profile: Trends in Transboundary Water Management ==
== Region Profile: Challenges and Opportunities ==
== Articles ==
{{RegionArticleList}}
== Projects and Case Studies ==
{{RegionProjectList}}
== Publications ==
{{RegionPublicationList}}
== Who is Who ==
{{RegionUserList}}
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== References ==
<references/>
== See also ==
== External Resources ==
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[[Category:Region]]
[[Category:Pacific Islands]]
[[Category:Australasia]]
[[Category:Asia & Pacific]]
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