Incomati
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| The Incomati Basin is part of / comprises: · Africa · Eastern Africa · Southern Africa · |
| Countries sharing the Incomati Basin: · Mozambique · South Africa · Swaziland · |
| Facts & Figures | edit |
|---|---|
| Catchment AreaA | 46,700 km3 |
| Recipient | |
| Neighbouring BasinsA | Limpopo, Maputo, Umbeluzi |
| PopulationA | 1,950,000 |
| Population DensityA | 42 /km2 |
| DischargeA | 5 km3/yr |
| Surface Area | m3 |
| Average Depth | m |
| Water Volume | m2 |
| Water Stress | 2500 m3/person/year |
| Average Precipitation | mm/yr |
| Evaporation | mm/yr |
| Runoff | 1800 mm/yr |
| Land Use | |
| Irrigated Area | 425 km2 |
| Irrigable Area | 631000 km2 |
| No. of DamsA | 3 |
| Dam Density | 1.5 dams/km2 |
| Total Water Withdrawals | km3 |
| For Agricultural Use | |
| For Domestic Use | |
| For Industrial Use | |
| Renewable Water Available (m3/yr/pers) | |
| References & Remarks | |
| A Transboundary Freshwater Spatial Database, Oregon University | |
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Water Basin Profile: Physical and Hydrological Characteristics
(Source: UNESCO-IHP, PCCP Series Publication: Sharing the Incomati Waters: Cooperation and Competition in the Balance)
Physical Geography and Geology
The Incomati river basin is located in the southeastern part of the African continent and covers a land area of about 46,700 (Mm2. It occupies 2,500 Mm2 of the Kingdom of Swaziland, 15,600 Mm2 of the Republic of Mozambique, and 28,600 Mm2 of the Republic of South Africa (See Figure 3 in PCCP publication).
The Incomati river basin rises in the mountains and plateau (2,000 meters above sea level) in the west of the basin and drops to the homogeneous flat coastal plain to the east of the Lebombo mountains at elevations below 150 m. Five of the six main rivers in the basin originate in the plateau area, namely the Komati, Crocodile, Sabie, Massintonto, and Uanetze.
The geology of the basin is characterized by sedimentary, volcanic, granitic, and dolomitic rocks, and quaternary and recent deposits. There are occurrences of various minerals but only coal, asbestos, and gold are mined. The basin is characterized by a wide variety of natural vegetation types. These vary between beaches and recent dunes, tropical bush and forest, and different types of savannah and grassveld.
Climate
The general climate in the Incomati river basin varies from a warm to hot humid climate in the Mozambique Coastal Plain and the Lowveld to a cooler dry climate in the Transvaal Plateau and South African Highveld in the west. The entire Incomati river basin lies within the summer (October–March) rainfall region, with a mean annual precipitation of about 740 mm/a, which generally increases from east to west (See Figure 4 in PCCP publication). The highest precipitation occurs in the upper Sabie (around 1,200 mm/a). The mean annual potential evaporation for the basin as a whole is about 1,900 mm/a, which generally decreases from east to west. Consequently, the deficit between rainfall and potential evaporation increases from west to east, irrigation becoming more important for crop production towards the east. Winds over the entire Incomati river basin are generally light, with occasional gales before and during thunderstorms. The low lands are prone to tropical cyclonic storms.
Climatic cyclicity between dry and wet periods (an eighteen-year cycle) has been identified for the Lowveld region, and has been linked to the influence of El Niño on the region. This is reflected in the flow pattern of the Sabie River (Jewitt et al., n.d.).
Hydrology
The Joint Inkomati Basin Study (JIBS) conducted thorough investigations to quantify the surface and groundwater resources of the Incomati. JIBS estimated the net virgin runoff of the Incomati river basin at 3,587 Mm3/a (See Tables 1 and 2 in PCCP publication). In the year 2002 the estimated total consumptive water use was about 1,800 Mm3/a, including consumptive use of exotic forest plantations. Total consumptive water use therefore represents 50 percent of the virgin runoff. This level of commitment is high, and frequently leads to water shortages, given the high variability of flow, both within and between years
Within the hydrological year (October–September), some 80 percent of all runoff occurs during the months November–April. Variations of discharge from year to year are significant, with a coefficient of variation of around 50 to 65 percent. Floods occur, as well as droughts. During the four-year period starting in October 1991, average annual runoff at Ressano Garcia was only 12 percent of the long-term average
measured over 1952–79. During the floods of February 2000, the Sabie River at Skukuza (catchment area 2,500 Mm2) had a peak discharge of 3,500m3/s (Smithers et al., 2001).
Storm floods take with them soil particles, causing erosion. JIBS (2001)
estimated that an average of 150 t/km2/a of soil is carried with the water annually, occasionally increasing to 450 t/km2/a. Surface water quality is generally adequate for the purpose of domestic and urban use after normal treatment. It is also suitable for irrigation.
Groundwater occurs in sufficient quantities for large-scale development only in the dolomites of the Transvaal Sequence, the Barberton Greenstone Belt, the alluvium of the Incomati river valley in the Mozambique coastal plain (with an estimated rate of recharge of about 150 Mm3/a), and in the Aeolian sands in the east of the Mozambique coastal plain (recharge is about 29 Mm3/a).
Natural Flora and Fauna Dependent on Water Resources
The Incomati provides habitats for a rich variety of species, including those classified as threatened. Some species provide essential economic and social services, including those to the poor. The basin provides refuge to at least forty threatened bird species, eleven threatened terrestrial mammal species, twelve threatened fish species, and eight threatened reptile and amphibian species, which are all wholly or partly dependent on water and/or riverine vegetation. In addition to these, about 104 threatened plant species are found in the basin.
Flora
Cycads (Encephalartos spp.) are vulnerable to disturbance, and of the twenty-eight Encephalartos species listed as either endangered, rare, or vulnerable, six species occur in the Incomati river basin, of which five species are endemic. Aloe thorncroftii occurs in the Barberton area. Endangered orchids such as Ansellia giganta (Pakama in Changane) occur in sand forests in Mozambique. Raphia australis is an endangered palm naturally occurring only along valleys of small rivers in southern Mozambique and Kosi Bay (in Natal).
Fauna
There is an abundance of bird life in the Incomati river basin, because of the occurrence of a wide variety of natural habitats, such as grasslands, bushveld with mixed tree types (broad-leafed and thorny species), coastal bush, evergreen forest (including riverine forest), and aquatic habitats. Well over 500 bird species have been recorded in the Incomati river basin, of which seventy-three species are listed as threatened in South Africa. Among the endangered bird species occurring in the basin are the Wattled Crane, the Blackrumped Buttonquail, the Blue Swallow, the Egyptian Vulture, and the Yellowbilled Oxpecker. Endangered terrestrial mammals occurring in the Incomati basin include the Hippotragus equines (roan antelope) and the Lycaon pictus (wild dog). Numerous rare reptiles, amphibians, and butterflies also occur.
Conservation Status
There are many areas of particular conservation importance within the basin. The most famous is the Kruger National Park, part of the recently proclaimed Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park. The conservation status of the main rivers in South Africa has been described as modified but primarily natural. The exceptions are the completely altered areas along the middle Crocodile River, the lower Komati and Lomati rivers, and some tributaries of the Sabie River. In Swaziland the conservation status of the rivers is considered close to natural for most stretches. In Mozambique, the flow regime of the main stem of the Incomati has been altered significantly because of upstream abstractions.
The most important anthropogenic changes in the river environment are caused by dams and reservoirs, water abstractions from these, and interbasin transfers. The resulting modified river flow regime affects structural and functional attributes of the biotic communities.
The Estuary
The Incomati estuary is an important sanctuary for breeding colonies of aquatic birds and provides water and other ecological services to local populations. The estuary also plays a major role in the lifecycles of the economically important shrimp, finfish, and shellfish species. It is the second most important area of shrimp production in Mozambique.
The estuary has an extensive mangrove forest covering approximately 5,000 ha around the mouth area that influences the health of the coastal zone and adjacent marine habitats and protects the coast from erosion provoked by the prevailing easterly winds. The positive relationship between mangrove areas and production of valuable fish and prawns is well documented. A number of commercially important fish, shrimp, crab, and mollusk species use mangroves as nursery grounds (for feeding and shelter) during the juvenile and adult stages of their development. Six species of mangrove occur in the estuary. Mangroves at the estuary have suffered
anthropogenic impact and large areas are being harvested for construction, charcoal production, and firewood.
The direct effect of freshwater in an estuary is to reduce the water salinity and increase nutrient supply (from sediment deposition) for the primary productivity of the estuarine ecosystems, namely mangroves and reed beds. Upstream abstractions have reduced freshwater flows into the estuary and changed the flow regime. This may
negatively affect the estuarine ecosystem and consequently the shrimp and fish production in Maputo Bay.[1]
Water Basin Profile: Socio-Economic and Environmental Issues
(Source: UNESCO-IHP, PCCP Series Publication: Sharing the Incomati Waters: Cooperation and Competition in the Balance)
Economic Developments in the Basin: The Case of Sugar
Despite its economic significance, the Incomati basin has no major urban developments. The nearest large city is Maputo which lies just outside the basin at the mouth of Maputo Bay. Founded in 1790, the city became an important commercial center towards the end of the nineteenth century. Economic development in the upper parts of the Incomati basin started to become significant around the same time, when the first towns such as Barberton and Nelspruit were established. No other major urban centers developed in the basin, but many smaller towns exist, such as Carolina, Eerstehoek, Kamaqhekeza, Komatipoort, Ngodini, Malelane, and Sabie en Graskop in South Africa, Piggs Peak in Swaziland, and Moamba, Magude, Palmeira, Manhica, and Marracuene in Mozambique. It is estimated that currently 2 million people reside in the basin.
The basin provides an important transport and communication axis between the Gauteng area and the Indian Ocean. Also here we see that developments towards the
end of the nineteenth century were decisive, in that they laid out the basic structure
of a network of roads and railways that persists until the present.
Mineral deposits found in the basin area at the end of the nineteenth century appeared promising, but never lived up to the high expectations. Existing mining activities in the Incomati river basin are limited to coal mining in the upper reaches of the Komati river catchment and relatively small-scale gold mining in the Barberton and Sabie areas.(see Box bellow)
| Mining activities in the Incomati basin: |
|
The sectors providing the mainstay of the economy in the basin are agriculture and forestry. It is significant that both sectors are large water consumers, which justifies a basin perspective for analyzing economic development. In terms both of land and
water use and of the economy, two crops dominate the basin: rain-fed commercial tree plantations (some 340,000 ha), and irrigated sugarcane cultivation (42,800 ha,
excluding 10,800 ha in the Umbeluzi basin that is irrigated with Incomati water) and the related sugar industry. Because of the lack of data on afforestation the remainder of this section sketches the significance of the sugar industry.[2] Sugarcane production in the basin captures as much as 67 percent of all water used for irrigation, provides employment to a large labor force (some 30,000 directly employed), and generates between $50–100 million per year.
Sugar Production in South Africa
It is estimated that in the South African part of the Incomati basin some 83,000 ha is irrigated, of which nearly 30,000 ha (36 percent) is given over to sugarcane. This is crushed and converted to sugar in two sugar mills, both owned by TSB (Transvaal 15 Suiker Beperk, a Rembrandt company controlled by Anton and later Johann Rupert). Malelane Sugar Mill along the Crocodile river was established in 1965 and has a capacity to crush some 1.8 million tons of cane into 200,000 tons of sugar per year. The mill at Komatipoort (commissioned in 1997) has a slightly higher capacity. Sugar production at the two mills contributes about 17 percent of total sugar production in South Africa.[3]
Sugar Production in Mozambique
Irrigation development in the Incomati plains in Mozambique started around 1910 with the establishment of the sugarcane plantation and sugar mill at Xinavane by a British-owned company. The estate was taken over by a Portuguese company in the early 1950s and changed its name to Sociedade Agricola do Incomati. In 1954, the company doubled the capacity of the mill and installed state-of-the-art (mostly French) technology. In 1975, the state took 51 percent equity in this company. In 1998, 5http://www.huletts.co.za/ Tongaat-Hulett Sugar], a South African company, purchased the remaining 49 percent. A rehabilitation program for the mill and estates commenced in 2000 and raised the crush capacity to 461,000 tons of cane per year, producing 50,000 tons of sugar.
Around 1910, Portuguese industrialists created Maragra near the town of
Manhiça, which first cultivated bananas for export to Transvaal. It turned to growing
sugarcane in 1960. A sugar mill was built in 1968, attaining a peak production of
44,000 tons of sugar in 1973. In 1975 it was nationalized and production collapsed.
Maragra was re-privatized in 1994. In 1998, Illovo Sugar Ltd of South Africa took 50
percent ownership in Maragra Açúcar. Affected by the February 2000 flood, sugar
production resumed in 2001 with some 12,000 tons of sugar produced in 2001–2. The
capacity of the mill has since been upgraded to 100,000 tons of sugar per year, with
loans from, among others, the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA), the
European Union, and the International Finance Corporation.
Sugar Production in Swaziland
Sugarcane is the dominant agricultural crop in Swaziland. The sugar industry, which produces about 530,000 tons of sugar per year, is the country’s leading export earner and largest private sector employer (Mwendera et al., 2002). Sugarcane cultivation started in the mid-1950s with the construction of the Ubombo sugar mill in the south of the country. The Commonwealth Development Corporation, together with the Inyoni Yami Irrigation Scheme (IYSIS), constructed Mhlume Mill (Mhlume Swaziland Sugar Company) on the Umbeluzi River, neighboring the Komati, in 1960. Part of the sugarcane of IYSIS is irrigated with Incomati water conveyed from Sand River dam through the Mhlume Canal (1958). In 1980 the Royal Swaziland Sugar Corporation constructed a third sugar mill, Simunye, not far from Mhlume.[4] Currently 13,500 ha of sugarcane is irrigated with Incomati water, 10,800 ha of which are situated along the Mbuluzi River in the Umbeluzi basin. This area includes 3,100 ha of sugarcane grown since 1957 on Tambankulu Estate. This estate was bought in 1998 by Tongaat-Hulett, the South African sugar company.[5]
Reaping the Benefits
The obvious question to ask is: “Why is sugarcane production dominant in the Incomati basin?”'The answer is twofold. First, the crop requires much water, and water is available in the basin. Second, in all three countries the crop has a regulated market, which is fairly complex.[6] The result, however, is fairly straightforward: farmgate prices are artificially held stable, and have been higher than the world market price for the last decade or so. From a commercial perspective it is therefore worthwhile to produce sugar. This may explain the magnitude of sugarcane in the Incomati. Sugarcane processing in the Incomati basin is in the hands of few players: three, to be precise (See Table 3 in PCCP publication). These are the same three companies that dominate the South African sugar market. To understand why this so, two more characteristics of sugar production must be considered. First, crushing cane and converting it to sugar is a fairly complex industrial process, requiring large investments that are beyond the reach of individual farmers. Second, sugarcane is a “high volume–low value” crop and it is therefore not economic to transport it over long distances. This means that once an investor has established a mill it becomes a monopolist: producers have few options other than to sell their cane to it.
Dam Development
In 1960 water use of the Incomati was still modest, and no major dams existed. However, developments were happening quickly and the first ideas for further water development had crystallized, mainly focusing on the Komati River. In 1962, South Africa commissioned Nooitgedacht dam with a capacity of 81 Mm3. Its purpose was to supply cooling water to a major Eskom thermal power station on the highveld (in the Olifants catchment of the Limpopo river basin). This power station was appropriately named Komati, after the river supplying it with water.[7] Swaziland followed suit and in 1966 commissioned the Sand River dam (also on the Komati River and with a capacity of 49 Mm3), supplying water for irrigated sugar cane production. Five years later South Africa constructed the Vygeboom dam (84 Mm3), also on the same river, for further cooling water requirements for thermal power production outside the Incomati basin.
Mozambique already had extensive irrigation works established. An estimated
5,000 ha of maize, vegetables, potatoes, and citrus were irrigated at Moamba,
Magude, and Manhiça, as well as significant rice cultivation near Macia. In addition,
the sugar companies at Xinavane (CAI), Palmeira, and Manhiça (Maragra) irrigated
about 12,000 ha of sugarcane, which produced around 80,000 tons of sugar in 1970,
or a quarter of Mozambique’s total sugar production (Wuyts, 1989; Hanlon, 1984).
These estates irrigated their crops through off-river pumping. This was feasible since
the minimum flow of the lower Incomati, until that time, seldom dropped below
10 m3/s. Moreover, Mozambique had ambitious plans to build major storage dams on
the Incomati near Moamba (Moamba Major) and the Sabie (Corumana).
During the period 1972–81, four relatively small dams were built (each smaller
than 15 Mm3), three on the Crocodile, and one on the Sabie, all in South African
territory. The Kwena dam on the Crocodile (155 Mm3), commissioned in 1984,
increased the total storage capacity in the basin to some 430 Mm3, of which 89
percent was in South Africa, and none in Mozambique.
By 1988, South Africa and Swaziland were making progress with their joint
development plan for the Komati, while Mozambique unilaterally (without seeking an
agreement from South Africa) commissioned the biggest dam on the Incomati,
Corumana dam (850 Mm3) on the Sabie River, tripling the total storage capacity in the
basin (See Figure 7 in PCCP publication). In the same year, Mozambique also completed Pequenos Libombos dam (400 Mm3) in the Umbeluzi basin (neighboring the Incomati basin), meant to
secure Maputo’s water supply.
During 1991–7 no major new dam was commissioned on the Incomati basin. In the
meantime, with the emerging peace and stability in the region, water use increased
sharply. As an example, in the lower Komati and Lomati rivers (in South Africa) alone,
5,300 ha of new irrigated sugarcane was established between 1993 and 2001 under
the Nkomazi Irrigation Expansion Program, mainly meant to benefit small and
medium-scale emergent black farmers. A new sugar mill was constructed in
Komatipoort in 1997 (Waalewijn, 2002).
In 1998 South Africa completed Driekoppies Dam (251 Mm3) on the Lomati River, which was one of the two dams being constructed under the bilateral
agreement between Swaziland and South Africa. During 2001 and 2002, two other
dams were commissioned in the basin: Injaka dam (120 Mm3) on the Sabie River in South
Africa, and Maguga Nkomati Basin dam (332 Mm3) on the Komati River in Swaziland.
This brought the total storage capacity in the basin to 2,060 Mm3 (See Table 4 in PCCP publication).
Consumptive Water Uses in the Basin
Consumptive use of surface water amounts to 51 percent of the average amount of surface water generated in the basin, which is considered relatively high (See Table 5 in PCCP publication). The major water consumers are the irrigation and forest plantation sectors, followed by interbasin water transfers. These represent 91 percent of all consumptive water uses. Other water uses include domestic, municipal, and industrial use as well as water for livestock and game. Table 5 does not include water requirements for the environment, which are difficult to assess and often are only partly consumptive (see below), nor does the table include evaporation losses from dams. These losses are estimated to be in the order of 65 Mm3/a for the dams that were in place in the year 2002.[8]
Domestic and Municipal Water Use
Although agriculture is by far the largest water user in the basin, it is prudent to start with the water use that is generally given highest priority, namely that for human beings. Present water consumption of the 2 million people living in the basin represents a mere 5 percent of total consumptive water use, and only 3 percent of average water generation. It is expected that, with a growing population and increasing economic development, water use in this sector will increase rapidly. The city of Maputo may soon require water from the Incomati to supplement its current source from the Umbeluzi River, if the alternative source from the Maputo basin is not utilized.
Industry
In general, the existing industries in the Incomati river basin are concentrated in the urban centers and their water requirements are considered part of the municipal water requirements. Major industries not located in urban centers are: the Mhlume sugar mill in Swaziland; the SAPPI paper mill at Ngodwana and the TSB sugar mills at Malelane and Komatipoort, in South Africa; and the Xinavane and Maragra sugar mills and the textile factory at Marracuene, in Mozambique (See Table 6 in PCCP publication).
Livestock and Game
The total amount of livestock and game within the Incomati basin is about 700,000 equivalent livestock units (ELSU), of which some 520,000 are in South Africa, some 120,000 in Swaziland, and the balance in Mozambique. Water use by livestock and game is relatively small, in the order of 11 Mm3/a.
Rain-fed Agriculture
Rain-fed agriculture is widespread throughout the basin. This type of agriculture uses rainfall directly, and is in this sense one of the largest water users. Compared to the natural vegetation, the use of rainfall is in the same order of magnitude, except for exotic tree plantations (see below).
Rain-fed crop production in the sandy uplands of the coastal Incomati plain is
mainly by small family-farming units. Food crops grown include cassava (Manihot sp.),
maize (Zea mays), groundnut (Arachis hypogea), sweet potato (Ipomea batatus),
cowpea (Vigna sp.), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), and vegetable crops such as
squashes, pumpkins (both Cucurbita sp.), tomatoes, and okra (Hibiscus esculentus)
(Schouwenaars, 1988).
Because of the variability of rainfall, crops frequently suffer moisture stress and
yields often are low (Schouwenaars, 1988). Typical grain yields are around 1 t/ha.
However, smallholder farmers often cultivate the valley bottoms, utilizing the
relatively shallow groundwater. This allows crop cultivation even in the dry season.
Gomes and Famba (1999) emphasized the importance of such wetlands (machongos)
for crop production.
Exotic Tree Plantations (Afforestation)
Extensive areas of exotic tree plantations occur mainly in Swaziland and South Africa, and are entirely rain-fed. They consume large quantities of water from rainfall, and thereby alter the natural hydrology to the extent that runoff is significantly reduced. Exotic afforestation in both Swaziland and South Africa is therefore controlled by means of a permit system. The existing exotic afforestation in Mozambique is negligible and is apparently not controlled officially, although there are plans to expand the area to about 25,000 ha. JIBS (2001) estimated that the total permitted afforestation areas in South Africa and Swaziland (nearly 400,000 ha) cause a flow reduction of 518 Mm3/a, that is, equivalent to 130 mm/a.
Irrigation
Irrigated agriculture is the largest user of surface and groundwater in the Incomati. The area presently being irrigated is estimated at 102,000 ha (excluding 10,800 ha outside the basin proper), consuming 870 Mm3/a of water. In addition, all three countries were planning to expand the irrigated area with another 74,800 ha, which would require an additional 780 Mm3/a of water (See Table 8 in PCCP publication). JIBS (2001) calculated that such amounts of water are simply not available. It concluded that Mozambique must scale down its plans for future new irrigation development, and JIBS suggested a more realistic expansion of 36,600 ha for Mozambique. The recently concluded Tripartite Interim Agreement (TIA, 2002), however, states that Mozambique may not expand its irrigated area beyond the area that already has irrigation infrastructure (part of which is currently not irrigated).
The dominant irrigated crop in all three countries is sugar cane. With 42,800 ha
(excluding 10,800 ha in the Umbeluzi basin) sugarcane represents 42 percent of the
entire irrigated area in the basin proper. Other dominant crops include orchards,
summer grains, and winter vegetables (See Table 9 in PCCP publication).
Water Transfers
Surface water is being exported from the Incomati basin to neighboring basins. This type of consumptive water use represents the third largest water use in the basin, after irrigation and water consumption by exotic tree plantations. Two bulk water transfers exist in the Incomati river basin. South Africa exports 132 Mm3/a from the upper Komati river catchment as cooling water for thermal power generation in the adjacent Olifants catchment. [9] Swaziland exports 136 Mm3/a from the Komati River in Swaziland, which comprises 128 Mm3/a for irrigating 10,800 ha of sugarcane on the Umbeluzi, 3 Mm3/a for the Mhlume sugar mill, and 5 Mm3/a for domestic use in the three villages in the vicinity of the irrigation scheme.
In the near future, another water transfer might be established in the Incomati
basin, near the town of Moamba or at the confluence with the Sabie River, for the
urban water supply of Maputo. Some 90 Mm3/a will be required for this purpose.[10]
Other Water Uses
Some of the dams generate hydropower, but all such dams have as a primary purpose to provide water for other sectors. Electricity production is therefore a secondary benefit derived from water releases made to other users.
Another type of water use is water required to maintain the riverine ecosystems.
JIBS (2001) made a first estimate of how much water should remain in the river (see Table 10 in PCCP publication) . It observed that the amounts required are fairly high, and will constrain
other water uses. It recommended therefore that further detailed studies be
conducted to ascertain these values. The Tripartite Interim Agreement of 2002 includes a provision for maintaining environmental flows in the river, albeit at levels
that differ somewhat from those estimated by JIBS.
Recent Trends
This section has demonstrated that water use is high in the Incomati basin. As a result, certain parts of the basin experience severe water stress during certain periods of the year, and during years with below normal rainfall and runoff. Notable are the high commitment levels in the Komati and Lomati rivers, as well as in the upper Sabie and the central Crocodile. Since most consumptive water uses occur in the upper parts of the basin, the lower parts are affected by it. Figures 8 and 9 (see PCCP publication) clearly show this effect, by comparing the average runoff pre- and post-1980 for two rivers, namely the Incomati near Ressano Garcia in Mozambique, just below the confluence of the Komati and Crocodile, and the Sabie at Machatuine, just upstream of Corumana dam in Mozambique. In both cases, average runoff measured during 1980–99 is less than half of that measured between 1953 and 1979.
Further development of water use in the three riparian countries will require coordination. Without such coordination, problems will be inevitable, possibly with
significant economic and political repercussions. JIBS (2001) analyzed the possibilities
of coordinated development of water projects, and concluded that a further increase
of irrigation development is constrained, even with the planned construction of two
new dams (Mountain View on the Crocodile in South Africa, and Moamba Major on the
Incomati in Mozambique), and increasing the capacity of Corumana dam. Given this
situation, it is encouraging that on August 29 2002 the ministers responsible for water
of the three riparian countries reached an interim agreement over the utilization of
the waters of the Incomati basin and the Maputo basin (TIA, 2002).
Water Basin Profile: Transboundary Political and Institutional Setting
(Source: UNESCO-IHP, PCCP Series Publication: Sharing the Incomati Waters: Cooperation and Competition in the Balance)
National Legislation and Institutional Set-up
Their respective water laws govern water resources allocation and management in Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland. Whereas Mozambique and South Africa have recently enacted new water laws (in 1991 and 1998, respectively), the Water Act of Swaziland currently in force dates back to 1967 (and amended by Act 1 of 1969, Act 40 of 1970, Act 12 of 1971, and Act 5 of 1972). In 2001 a new Water Bill came before parliament for final approval, incorporating some fundamental changes for the water sector in Swaziland, with some new features that already exist in South Africa and Mozambique (Mwendera et al., 2002).
The new water law regimes in the three countries have the following characteristics:
- Ownership of water is vested in the head of state, who holds the water resources in trust for the people.
- All people have a right to a basic amount of water, for which they do not require a right or permit.
- The environment is considered a legitimate water user; its needs have to be considered along with other types of water requirements.
- The allocation of water for uses other than primary purposes and the environment – that is, for productive processes such as agriculture, mining, and manufacturing – follows either a riparian system (Swaziland) or is subject to licenses/permits (Mozambique and South Africa).
- All these uses of water are regulated by a central water management body within a particular ministry (the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) in South Africa, or the National Water Directorate (DNA) in Mozambique, or, as is proposed in the Water Bill of Swaziland, the Department of Water Affairs and its executive arm, the National Water Authority).
- Day-to-day water allocation and management tasks are delegated to decentralized bodies that are constituted along hydrological boundaries.In Mozambique these are the regional water administrations (ARAs), and in South Africa the Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs). In Swaziland, River Basin Authorities will be created (see Box bellow).
- The decentralized water management bodies incorporate representatives of water-user groups, who have a say in the allocation of water.
- The sharing of the water resources of international basins is explicitly mentioned in both the Mozambican and South African water acts. The South African National Water Act, for instance, states that international water resources will be managed in a manner that optimizes the benefits for all the parties in a spirit of mutual cooperation. Allocations agreed for downstream countries will be respected. Mozambique has a special department dealing with international waters: the International Rivers Office.
Relevant Bilateral and Trilateral Agreements Concerning the Incomati Basin up to 1999
A number of agreements were reached between the three countries riparian to the Incomati basin during the period 1967–99. This section provides a chronological overview.
| Decentralized water management bodies in the Incomati river basin |
| Mozambique :
The Water Law of 1991 adopted the principle of decentralization in water resources management, particularly at the operational level. Therefore Regional Water Administrations (ARAs) were created, organized on the basis of one or more (contiguous) river basins. The ARAs are public institutions, with administrative and financial autonomy, under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Works and Housing, via the National Directorate of Waters. ARA-Sul was created in 1993 and its Incomati basin management unit (UGBI) is responsible for the operational management of the Incomati basin. The Incomati Basin Committee, made up of water users, is a consultative body to the UGBI. |
| South Africa :
The National Water Act of 1998 states that a Catchment Management Agency may be established for a specific water management area, on the initiative of the minister or of the community and stakeholders concerned. A Catchment Management Agency has as major functions: to investigate and advise interested persons on the protection, use, development, conservation, management, and control of the water resources in its water management area; to develop a catchment management strategy; to coordinate the related activities of water users and of the water management institutions within its water management area; and to promote community participation in the protection, use, development, conservation, management, and control of the water resources. The Inkomati Catchment Management Agency, comprising the Komati, Crocodile, and Sabie rivers, is currently being established, with each of these rivers having a sub-catchment organization. The existing irrigation boards in these rivers (in the Komati River these have been merged into the N’komazi Major Irrigation Boards) will be transformed into Water Users Associations, as per the new National Water Act. |
| Swaziland :
A Government Water Control Area may be declared if it is deemed necessary in the public interest to control the abstraction, utilization, supply, or distribution of the water of any public stream within the relevant area. The Komati River and all its tributaries within Swaziland have been proclaimed a Government Water Control Area. The Water Apportionment Board has determined apportionments based on normal flow. When the flow is not available, the flow to irrigators must be reduced proportionally. The Water Bill of 2002 was designed to strengthen the role of the Water Apportionment Boards, and envisaged that they would be transformed into River Basin Authorities (Mwendera et al., 2002). The minister may, on his or her own accord or at the request of a number of proprietors of land riparian to a public stream, declare any area as an Irrigation District. An Irrigation District is administered by the River Basin Authority, and has an Irrigation Board. The Board comprises mainly members elected by the relevant proprietors. An Irrigation Board is charged with such functions as: the protection of the water source; preventing waste of the water; preventing unlawful abstraction or storage of public water; exercising general supervision over all public streams within the District; recording the entitlements to any share in the use of the water and the times when such shares may be taken; and supplying water to any person or local authority for primary, urban, or industrial purposes. |
Agreement in Regard to Rivers of Mutual Interest of 1964
The “Agreement between the Governments of South Africa and Portugal in regard to Rivers of Mutual Interest and the Cunene River Scheme” (October 13 1964) (also known as the “Cunene Agreement”) started off as a bilateral agreement between South Africa and Portugal, to which Mozambique succeeded at independence. Swaziland acceded to Part I (Rivers of Mutual Interest) of this agreement in 1967. The agreement acknowledges the importance of rivers as water resources for the development of the respective territories of the parties as well as the advantages of collaborating in the development of such water resources.
The operative paragraphs of Part I record agreement on three so-called “principles”:
- The application of the principle of “best joint utilization” in the development of water resources of “common interest rivers.”
- The manner in which cooperation should take place is by way of exchange of hydrological and other data, consultations regarding the execution of major hydraulic works affecting the interests of the states concerned, and joint studies regarding “general plans for the development of water resources of each basin.”
- Negotiations at the diplomatic level and the conclusion of agreements in respect of particular basins are recommended.
Agreement Relative to the Establishment of a Tripartite Permanent Technical Committee
A Tripartite Permanent Technical Committee (TPTC) was established in February 1983, consisting of three representatives from each of the three governments concerned (see Annex 1 in PCCP publication). The TPTC is convened on an ad hoc basis, as and when circumstances require. All decisions are to be taken by consensus. The functions and duties of the TPTC are mainly of an advisory nature with regard to:
- Measures to alleviate short-term problems regarding water shortages on rivers of common interest during drought periods.
- The division of flows in rivers of common interest, arrangements for the investigation of common watersheds, and joint water schemes on rivers of common interest.
- Mechanisms to coordinate and integrate the findings and plans of each country.
- Report on the optimum joint scheme or schemes catering for the needs of all three countries.
Agreement reached at the Tripartite Ministerial Meeting of February 15 1991
At this meeting the recommendations of the TPTC were accepted and agreed upon by the three ministers responsible for water in the three states concerned. Agreement was recorded on the following matters:
- To conduct a joint study of the water resources, demands, and development potential of the whole Incomati river basin.
- To proceed with implementing the first phase of the Komati River Development Plan (that is, the construction of the Driekoppies and Maguga Nkomati Basin dams).
- Pending the results of the Joint Study, to implement the following interim measures:
- A cross-border release of 2 m3/s averaged over a cycle of three days in order to satisfy demands in the reach from Ressano Garcia to the confluence of the Sabie River.
- South Africa would refrain from constructing any new waterworks with a storage capacity in excess of 250,000 cubic meters or with an abstraction rate exceeding 110 liters per second in the Sabie river catchment, without prior consultation at TPTC level in accordance with the Helsinki rules and the 1964 Rivers Agreement.
Joint Inkomati Basin Study (JIBS)
Following the tripartite agreement of 1991, the Joint Inkomati Basin Study (JIBS) was launched in 1992. However, because of the impossibility of obtaining the required information from Mozambique, the study was concluded in curtailed form in 1995. The study was re-initiated in 2000 (JIBS Phase 2) and concluded towards the end of 2001.
Treaty on the Development and Utilization of the Water Resources of the Komati River Basin and Treaty on the Establishment and Functioning of the Joint Water Commission
Both treaties were signed by South Africa and Swaziland in March 1992, and explicitly deal with the Komati River, a sub-basin of the Incomati basin. The preamble to the first treaty records the commitment of both countries to pursue their common water interest on the basis of the provisions of the Helsinki Rules, and to develop the water resources of the Komati river basin by means of a comprehensive development plan. The Joint Water Commission (JWC) and the Komati Basin Water Authority (KOBWA) are the two main institutions entrusted with the different aspects of the implementation of the Project and the development plan. Both countries expressly declared that they:
- Recognize the right of the Republic of Mozambique to a reasonable and equitable share in the use of the waters of the Inkomati River Basin of which the Komati River Basin is an integral part. The Parties agree to enter into negotiations with each other when such share is claimed by the Government of the Republic of Mozambique. (Article 3, section 5)
In the terms of the second treaty, a Joint Water Commission (JWC) is established and
its duties and functions determined. The JWC consists of the two delegations
representing both countries and all decisions are taken on the basis of consensus. In
the main, the JWC acts in an advisory capacity with regard to the various aspects of
the joint development of water resources of common interest to the parties. The JWC
is charged in particular with the duty of having regard for the interests of
Mozambique.
Bilateral Agreement Between Mozambique and South Africa
A formal agreement was signed between Mozambique and South Africa in July 1996 to create a Joint Water Commission. The structure and content of this agreement are quite similar to the one between the South Africa and Swaziland for the Komati river basin. The main functions and powers of the JWC are to give advice on all technical matters. The JWC must have due consideration for the interests of Swaziland, Zimbabwe, and Botswana in any water resources of common interest between the parties and one or more of those countries.
Bilateral Agreement Between Swaziland and Mozambique
In July 1999, Mozambique and Swaziland signed an agreement to establish a Joint Water Commission, in similar terms to the one established between Mozambique and South Africa in 1996.
Relevant Transboundary Legal Conventions
For the sharing of the water resources of the Incomati basin, three conventions are of relevance. They are, in chronological order, the Helsinki Rules of 1966, the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997), and the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems (in force since 1998, and revised as the Protocol on Shared Watercourses in 2000).
The Helsinki Rules have been used by Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland
as a basis for negotiating on issues of common river basins, even if not accepted in a
formal way. The UN Convention is presently the more advanced legal document on
the issue of international watercourses and, although it has lapsed, it contains the
fundamental principles of water management, conflict resolution, and environmental
safety that have been developed during the last three decades.
The UN Convention inspired the revision of the SADC Protocol on Shared
Watercourse Systems and many of its clauses were incorporated in the revised
Protocol.[11]
Towards the SADC Protocol
The SADC Protocol would have implications for the sharing of the Incomati waters. At the same time, experiences in the Incomati, among others, have influenced the text of the revised protocol as adopted by SADC in 2000.
The SADC Protocol has its roots in the Zambezi River Action Plan (ZACPLAN) of 1987. One of the projects under ZACPLAN was ZACPRO 2, “the development of
regional legislation necessary for the management of the Zambezi and minimum
national legislation required by riparian states for enforcement.” Out of this project
grew, in a sometimes tortuous process, the Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems in the SADC Region, originally planned for acceptance at the 1993 SADC summit, but
not agreed upon until 1995 (Ohlsson, 1995).
One explanation why this initially basin-specific initiative was adopted SADC-wide
is the regional drought of 1992. This devastating drought impressed upon all SADC
member states the need for a regional arrangement with respect to shared
watercourses.
The new South Africa, in a bid to show its regional goodwill, joined SADC in 1995
and immediately hosted the SADC summit of heads of state or government, in August
that year. During the summit, ten of the eleven heads of state signed the “Protocol on Shared Water Course Systems in the SADC Region'.” This was the first of a long series
of SADC Protocols to be signed, covering a variety of subject areas.
Three months later South Africa hosted the SADC conference of water ministers in Pretoria (November 23–24 1995), when it was decided to establish the SADC Water Sector, separate from the existing Environment and Land Management Sector. The Water Sector Coordination Unit became operational in 1996. One of its immediate
tasks was to get the protocol ratified by the member states, since it would only enter
into force after two-thirds of the members had ratified it. Most SADC states complied
and the protocol came into force in September 1998. Mozambique was the only
country that refused to ratify it.
Mozambique refused to ratify because it wanted the definition of two crucial
concepts used in the protocol, namely “drainage basin” and “watercourse system,” to be clarified. More precisely, it wanted both concepts to explicitly state that the
downstream boundary of both concepts is the sea, and only in exceptional cases a
desert or a lake (as is the case with the Okavango). Carmo Vaz and Lopes Pereira
formulated the point thus:
- This definition of basin boundaries is not always accepted as such and creates additional difficulties in studies, proposals and negotiation for the sharing and common use of water resources. There is a certain tendency among the countries that are located along the upstream reaches of an international river basin to treat the basins of the tributaries as not being part of the basin. In this perspective, for example, the water developments in the Kafue basin would be a matter of planning and decision solely for Zambia, although it is a sub-basin of the Zambezi river basin. Mozambique has always considered this position to be unacceptable and it is one of the reasons why the Government of Mozambique asked for modifications of the SADC Protocol on Shared River Basins. (Vaz and Pereira, 2000, p. 101–2)
It is clear that the concerns of Mozambique were, among others, informed by its
experience in the Incomati, where South Africa and Swaziland were signing treaties
on the Komati River without involving Mozambique.
The other SADC members could have ignored Mozambique’s concerns, since
many countries were of the opinion that Mozambique was complicating things
unnecessarily. However, an interesting twist of events occurred when the United
Nations adopted in May 1997 the “Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses.” Key concepts used in the SADC Protocol
(drainage basin, watercourse system) were inconsistent with the new concept of
watercourse used by the UN Convention. And yet, seven (Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, and Zambia) of the then eleven SADC member
states had voted in favor of the UN convention (Tanzania abstained, while Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe did not vote).
Given this situation, SADC could do little else than decide to revise the protocol,
so as to make it consistent with the UN Convention. This would obviously make the
protocol acceptable to Mozambique, as it had signed the UN Convention. The revision
of the protocol took three years (from 1998–2000), and was signed by thirteen of the
now fourteen member states in Windhoek in August 2000. The Democratic Republic of Congo was the only country not to sign.
By September 2002, eight SADC countries had ratified the revised Protocol
(Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, and
Swaziland). Once nine countries (two-thirds) have ratified it, it will enter into force
and replace the 1995 protocol.
The SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses (2000)
The new Protocol on Shared Watercourses (see Annex 3 in PCCP publication). has a total of sixteen articles following a preamble where reference is specifically made to the Helsinki Rules and to the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses. The overall objective of this Protocol is to foster closer cooperation for judicious, sustainable, and co-coordinated management, protection, and utilization of shared watercourses, and to advance the SADC agenda of regional integration and poverty alleviation.
Reference is made to:
- The promotion of shared watercourse agreements and management institutions.
- Sustainable, equitable, and reasonable utilization of shared watercourses.
- Co-coordinated and integrated environmentally sound development and management of shared watercourses.
- Harmonization and monitoring of legislation and policies for planning, development, conservation, and protection of shared watercourses, and allocation of the resources thereof.
- Research and technology development, information exchange, capacity building, and the application of appropriate technologies in shared watercourses management.
The following general principles apply:
- Unity and coherence of each shared watercourse, consistent with the sustainable development of all watercourse states and observing the objectives of regional integration and harmonization of their socioeconomic policies and plans.
- Utilization of shared watercourses open to each watercourse state, in accordance with the principles contained in the protocol.
- Utilization by each state, within its own territory, of a shared watercourse in an equitable and reasonable manner, taking into account all relevant factors and circumstances.
- In utilizing a shared watercourse in its territory, each state will take all appropriate measures to prevent the causing of significant harm to other watercourse states.
- Respect for the existing rules of customary or general international law relating to the utilization and management of the resources of shared watercourses.
- Maintenance of a proper balance between resource development and conservation of the environment to promote sustainable development.
- Close cooperation with regard to the study and execution of all projects likely to impact on the regime of the shared watercourse.
- Exchange of available information and data regarding the hydrological, hydrogeological, water quality, meteorological, and environmental condition of shared watercourses.
The Protocol includes specific provisions that cover the following aspects:
- planned measures
- environmental protection and preservation
- management of shared watercourses
- prevention and mitigation of harmful conditions
- emergency situations.
The institutional mechanisms responsible for the implementation of the protocol are the SADC Water Sector Organs (Committee of Water Ministers, Committee of Water Senior Officials, Water Sector Co-coordinating Unit, Water Resources Technical Committee and subcommittees), and the Shared Watercourse Institutions (watercourse commissions, water authorities or boards, established by the watercourse states).
The protocol includes articles on shared watercourse agreements (following
closely the UN Convention) and settlement of disputes, establishing that the state
parties shall try to resolve their disputes amicably and in accordance with the
principles enshrined in the SADC Treaty or, when disputes cannot be solved in this
way, referring them to the SADC Tribunal for decision.
The Tripartite Interim Agreement of 2002
In 1999, Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland initiated discussions to reach an interim agreement for the Incomati and Maputo river basins. This agreement is intended to cover the period of time until comprehensive water agreements can be reached for both basins. After more than three years of sometimes tedious negotiations, the ministers responsible for water in the three countries signed the Interim Agreement on August 29 2002, during the World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg, South Africa (see Annex 2 in PCCP publication).
Tripartite Interim Agreement for Cooperation on the Protection and Sustainable Utilization of the Water Resources of the Incomati and Maputo Watercourses, August 29 2002
This agreement, abbreviated as TIA, aims to promote cooperation among the three countries to ensure the protection and sustainable utilization of the water resources of the Incomati and Maputo watercourses (Article 2), and will be 'valid until 2010 or until superseded by a new “comprehensive water agreement”(Article 18). The joint body for cooperation between the countries shall be the TPTC, and is tasked to implement the agreement (Article 5). Existing watercourse agreements will remain in force as far as they are not in conflict with this agreement (Article 17). The agreement uses the same definition of watercourse as used in the UN Convention and the revised SADC Protocol (Article 1). The general principles of the SADC Protocol apply, especially the following: sustainable utilization, equitable and reasonable utilization and participation, the prevention principle, and the cooperation principle (Article 3).
The responsibilities of the three countries are defined in Article 4, and imply that
the parties shall, individually and, where appropriate, jointly, develop and adopt
technical, legal, administrative, and other reasonable measures in order to, among
other measures:
- coordinate management plans and planned measures
- monitor and mitigate the effects of floods and droughts
- provide warning of possible floods and implement agreed upon urgent measures during flood situations
- exchange information on the water resources’ quality and quantity, and the uses of water
- implement capacity building programs.
Article 6 on the “Protection of the Environment” states that the three countries shall,
individually and, where appropriate, jointly, protect and preserve the aquatic
environment and ecosystems of the Incomati and Maputo watercourses, taking into
account generally accepted international rules and standards.
Article 7 on “Sustainable Utilization” is derived from the revised SADC Protocol
and states that the three countries shall be entitled, in their respective territories, to
optimal and sustainable utilization of, and benefits from, the Incomati and Maputo
water resources, taking into account the interests of the other countries concerned,
consistent with adequate protection of the watercourses for the benefit of present and
future generations. The three countries shall coordinate their management activities
by the exchange of information, and coordinate management plans and measures.
This article also states that the three countries are committed to developing measures
towards improvement of efficiency and rational use of water and its conservation and
to promote more efficient water use through adopting better available technology.
Article 9 states that any abstraction of waters from the Incomati or Maputo
watercourses, regardless of the use or geographic destination of such waters, shall be in conformity with the flow regimes of Annex I. The article explains that the following criteria were considered in establishing the flow regimes:
- the geographic, hydrological, climatic, and other natural characteristics of each watercourse
- the need to ensure water of sufficient quantity with acceptable quality to sustain the watercourses and their associated ecosystems
- any present and reasonably foreseeable water requirements, including afforestation
- existing infrastructure that has the capacity to regulate the streamflow of the watercourses
- agreements in force among the Parties.
The following short to medium-term water requirements of each of the three countries were recognized in particular:
- the strategic importance to Mozambique of augmenting the water supplies to the city of Maputo and its metropolitan area from one or both of the Incomati and Maputo watercourses
- the importance to Swaziland of developing the Lower Usuthu Smallholder Irrigation Project (LUSIP) on the Usuthu river in the Maputo basin
- the importance to South Africa of establishing and developing emerging irrigation farmers in the Incomati river catchment.
Further articles deal with “Droughts and Floods,” “Incidents of Accidental Pollution and
Other Emergency Situations,” and “Exchange of and Access to Information.” The latter
article, interestingly, states that information on matters covered by this Agreement
should be made available to whoever makes a reasonable request. The resolution by
the TPTC on exchange of information and water quality (August 13 2002) further
details this article.
Article 13 on “Transboundary Impacts” states that any planned water resources
development projects and water utilization projects (whether or not listed in Annex II
“Reference Projects”), shall not commence if they, by themselves or in combination
with the existing ones, have the potential of a significant transboundary impact on the
watercourse. These projects may only commence if the provisions of Article 4(1) of
the revised SADC Protocol, on the procedure of notifying other riparian countries of
planned measures, have been complied with.
It is quite unique that the Agreement contains an article on capacity building (Article 14), acknowledging that the three countries must have sufficient human and
institutional capacity to implement and monitor this agreement. Consequently, the
countries shall, individually and, where appropriate, jointly, be responsible for
ensuring that capacity is developed to effectively implement this Agreement.
Article 15 on “Settlement of Disputes” states that any dispute between the
countries concerning the interpretation or implementation of the agreement shall be
settled amicably through consultation and negotiations between the parties. Where
the dispute has not been settled within one year, either party may submit it to
arbitration. If the disputing parties do not agree on the subject matter of the dispute,
the arbitral tribunal shall determine the subject matter. This article further contains
detailed procedures how the arbitration should be conducted.
Finally, this agreement is of an interim nature, because it sets out to reach a so called “Comprehensive Agreement” for the Incomati watercourse in 2006, and a similar agreement on the Maputo watercourse in 2010. Annex V of TIA provides a time schedule of activities leading to both agreements. For the Incomati agreement, it is envisaged that the following important activities will be concluded before 2006:
- updating the Joint Inkomati Basin Study with data on the present-day situation [12]
- outlining the technical and institutional requirements
- determining ecological water requirements
- carrying out a feasibility study on how water requirements will be reconciled with water availability.
Water Basin Profile: Emerging Challenges and Opportunities for the Future
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References
- ↑ In 1984, DNA established that a minimum flow of 1.5 m3/s was necessary to keep salt intrusion at acceptable levels (cited in DNA, 1989, p. 21).
- ↑ The paper mill at Ngodwana was expanded during the 1980s. It currently requires some 6,000 tons of wood per day, which is supplied from commercial forests plantations. The mill produces pulp (540,000 tons/a) and paper (400,000 tons/a). Source: http://www.sappi.com.
- ↑ South Africa’s heartland of sugarcane production is Kwazulu-Natal, which is all rain-fed. Total sugar production in South Africa is c. 2.5 million tons/year, more than half of which is exported (SASA, 2002).
- ↑ Mhlume Swaziland Sugar Company and the Royal Swaziland Sugar Corporation merged in July 2002. See http://www.gov.sz/
- ↑ Source: http://www.huletts.co.za/
- ↑ This is well explained in a judgment of the Competition Tribunal of South Africa in 2000 against the merger between TSB and Tongaat-Hulett; see http://www.comptrib.co.za/
- ↑ Personal communication, Dr Theo van Robbroeck, July 25 2002.
- ↑ Personal communication, Mr Niel Van Wyk, October 31 2002.
- ↑ Another minor interbasin transfer occurs at Acornhoek, where 2 Mm3/a is exported from the northern watershed of the Sabie River catchment. This transfer is likely to increase to 9 Mm3/a in 2015.
- ↑ At present the main raw water source for the water supply system for Maputo is the Umbeluzi River, regulated by the Pequenos Libombos reservoir. Abstraction from this reservoir for Maputo can probably not exceed 240,000 m3/d (88 Mm3/a).
- ↑ The 1992 Treaty establishing the Southern African Development Community defines “protocol” as an instrument of implementation of the treaty, having the same legal force as the treaty.
- ↑ The second phase of JIBS did not update the data on water use given in the first JIBS report for South Africa and Swaziland. JIBS (2001) therefore contains data on water use that are difficult to compare. It presented potential water consumption in Mozambique with the existing infrastructure for the year 2000 (a figure higher than Mozambique’s actual water use in 2000), and actual water consumption for South Africa and Swaziland for the year 1991 (a figure lower than their actual water use in 2000).
