Mozambique

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Mozambique is part of:
Africa · Eastern Africa ·
Water Basins of Mozambique:
Buzi · Incomati · Komati · Limpopo · Maputo · Pungwe · Ruvuma · Sabi · Umbeluzi · Zambezi ·

Facts & Figures

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Capital

Maputo

Neighbouring Countries

Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe

Total Area

801,590 km²

- Water

17,500 km² (2.18%) / 218 m²/ha

- Land

784,090 km²

Coastline

2,470 km

Population

19,792,300 (25 inhab./km²)

HDI^A

0.366 (2007)

Gini Coefficient^A

47.3 (1995)

Nominal GDP^B

$9,788 million

GDP (PPP) Per Capita^B

$900

National UN Presence

FAO, UNDP, UNHCR, WHO, UNICEF, WB, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNEP, IFAD, UNCTAD

Land Use^C

- Cultivated Land

44,850 km² (5.72%)

- Arable

42,576 km² (5.43%)

- Permanent Crops

2,274 km² (0.29%)

- Irrigated

1,180 km²

- Non cultivated

8,047 km² (94.28%)

Average Annual Rainfall^D

1032 mm

Renewable Water Resources^E

216 km³

Water Withdrawals^F	33.23 km³/yr
- For Agricultural Use	87%
- For Domestic Use	11%
- For Industrial Use	2%
- Per Capita	35 m³

Population with safe access to
- Improved Water Source	43%
- Urban population	72%
- Rural population	26%
- Improved Sanitation	32%
- Urban population	53%
- Rural population	19%

References & Remarks

^A UNDP Human Development Report

^B CIA World Factbook and Wikipedia

^C CIA World Factbook Country Profiles

^D Aquastat - FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture

^E CIA World Factbook

^F Earthtrends

1 News
2 Country Profile: Climate, Geography, Socio-Economic Context
- 2.1 Climate and Geography
- 2.2 Socio-Economic Context
3 Country Profile: Water Bodies and Resources
- 3.1 Water resources
- 3.2 Water use
4 Country Profile: Legal and Institutional Environment
5 Country Profile: Water Sector Coordination
6 Country Profile: Trends in Water Use, Management and Sanitation
7 Country Profile: Challenges and Opportunities
8 Articles
9 Projects and Case Studies
10 Publications
11 Who is Who
12 References
13 See also
14 External Resources

News

Country Profile: Climate, Geography, Socio-Economic Context

Climate and Geography

Socio-Economic Context

Since the signing of the 1992 Peace Agreement, Mozambique has been viewed as one of Africa’s most successful stories of post-war reconstruction and economic recovery. The country held its third peaceful and democratic legislative and presidential elections in December 2004, reaffirming its commitment to political stability, democratic governance and national reconciliation. The Government has engaged in an ambitious economic, social and political reform agenda, and has made efforts to consolidate macro-economic stability, as a result of which the country is experiencing strong economic growth, averaging eight percent between 1996 and 2006, and has made significant progress in reducing poverty.

In spite of these achievements, many development challenges remain. Mozambique remains one of the poorest countries in the world and was ranked 172nd out of 177 in the 2007/08 Human Development Index. The national Millennium Development Goal (MDGs) progress report produced in 2005 indicated that of 11 MDG targets for which data were available, only five have the potential of being met without a considerable acceleration of efforts – those relating to poverty, under-five mortality, maternal mortality, malaria and the establishment of an open trading and financial system. Underlying and compounding all of these challenges is the vulnerability of the country to the combined effects of the ‘Triple Threat’ of protracted natural disasters, HIV and AIDS and weak national capacities to provide basic social services. Mozambique suffers from recurrent drought, particularly in semi-arid areas, which has led to pockets of food and nutrition insecurity and reduced access to safe water and sanitation in affected areas. The country is also prone to sudden onset emergencies such as cyclones and floods, resulting in inter alia loss of crops and livelihoods and outbreaks of cholera and high levels of diarrhoea among children, particularly in the rural areas.

The single greatest threat to development in Mozambique is HIV and AIDS and the epidemic is threatening to undermine all of the results achieved by the Government over the last decade. Based on the prevalence of HIV among pregnant women attending antenatal care, the nationa; HIV prevalence rate for 15-49 year-olds increased from 14% in 2001 to 16 % in 2007. These results have never been validated against population-based prevalence rates, but a nationwide population-based sero-behavioural survey (INSIDA) will be carried out in 2008-9. There is great variation by region and province: HIV prevalence in Southern Mozambique is showing a rising trend (from 15% in 2001 to 19% in 2004 and 21% in 2007), whereas in the Central and Northern regions HIV prevalence is levelling at 18% and 9%, respectively. Provinces in the south show a dramatic increase in prevalence rate since 2001 with the sharpest growth noted in Gaza and Maputo provinces (prevalence currently estimated at 27% and 26%, respectively). Mozambique has very little or no data on HIV incidence, but HIV prevalence rates among young women (15-24 years) attending antenatal clinics continues to rise from an estimated 15.6% in 2004 to 16.2% in 2007.

The HIV and AIDS epidemic in Mozambique has a woman’s face: the prevalence among women in the 15-24 age group is 2.5 times higher than that among men. In addition to the human cost of HIV and AIDS, the epidemic is also threatening to seriously weaken institutional capacity and decrease economic productivity through the loss of manpower. Estimates indicate that AIDS may reduce the economic growth per capita by between 0.3 and 1.0 per cent each year. The reduction of poverty rates will be slower on account of weaker economic growth, a reduction in the accumulation of human capital and an increase in household dependency rates.

The Government has invested heavily in public sector reform, capacity development and an ambitious decentralisation programme, with the objective of improving efficiency, enhancing transparency and devolving responsibility from the heavily centralised state ministries to the provinces and districts. The limited operational and managerial capacity of some sectors remains a concern, however, particularly at the sub-national levels and in relation to the recruitment and retention of qualified human resources, a problem that is being exacerbated by the AIDS pandemic.

If Mozambique is to attain the MDGs, it requires an urgent halt and reversal of the incidence of HIV, improvements in the efficiency of service delivery to the poor, employment creation, increases in the state revenue, reductions in foreign aid dependency, and effective preparedness for recurrent natural disasters. Particular focus will need to be placed on reaching the most disadvantaged communities in order to reduce the prevailing disparities, increase participation in development processes and ensure that the development gains are experienced by all Mozambicans. (Source: UN Mozambique)

Country Profile: Water Bodies and Resources

Water resources

Mozambique has 104 identified river basins that drain the central African highland plateau into the Indian Ocean. The majority of the rivers have a highly seasonal, torrential flow regime, with high waters during 3-4 months and low flows for the remainder of the year, corresponding to the distinct wet and dry seasons.

Groundwater potential is considerable and lies in the alluvial formations of the various rivers. Well yields in the Zambezi and Incomati basins are up to 70 000 m3/day.

In Mozambique, 97.3 km3 of surface water and 17 km3 of groundwater are produced annually. Considering an overlap between surface water and groundwater of 14 km3/yr, the total internal renewable water resources are 100.3 km3/yr. In addition, 116.8 km3 of surface water enter the country annually, of which 66 percent from the Zambezi River and thus total actual renewable water resources become 217.1 km3/yr.

The two main lakes are Lake Niassa (Lake Malawi) and Lake Chirua (Lake Chilwa), both of which are shared with Malawi. The total surface area of Lake Niassa is 30 800 km2, of which 21 percent belong to Mozambique. Lake Chirua has an average total area of 750 km2 of which no more than 29 km2 are within Mozambique. In addition to the two main lakes, there are more than 1 300 small lakes, 20 of which have an area of between 10 and 100 km2.

The total capacity of 27 dams with a height of 10 m or more is estimated at 64.5 km3. This refers mostly to the useful reservoir capacity. The Cahora Bassa dam on the Zambezi River is the largest hydroelectric plant in southern Africa with an installed capacity of 2 060 MW and a useful storage capacity of 39.2 km3. In 1971, 583 small dams (of which 90 percent were for irrigation or livestock watering) were registered, with a total volume of 60 million m3. It is believed that most of them were destroyed during the war.

Water use

Water use estimates for the year 2000 indicate a total water withdrawal of 635 million m3. The main consumer of water is agriculture, accounting for 550 million m3 (87 percent), followed by the domestic sector using 70 million m3 (11 percent) and industry consuming 15 million m3 (2 percent).

The main source of water in Mozambique is surface water. However, groundwater is utilized on a large scale in a number of urban centres for drinking water supply. Handpump-mounted boreholes and shallow wells are used throughout the country as the main source of drinking water in rural areas.

Country Profile: Legal and Institutional Environment

Institutions

The National Directorate for Agricultural Hydraulics (DNHA) within the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADER) is the coordinating authority for activities relating to irrigation and drainage. It performs studies, executes agricultural hydraulics projects and supports smallholder irrigation development. Inside the DNHA, the Programa nacional de irrigacao de pequena escala (PRONIPE) was specifically created for small-scale irrigation.

The Fund for Agricultural Hydraulics Development (FDHA) is in charge of promoting, fostering and funding the hydro-agricultural works or other activities related to irrigated agricultural development.

The National Water Directorate (DNA) within the Ministry of Public Works and Housing (MOPH) is in charge of policy making and implementation, overall planning and management of the country’s water resources and the provision of water supply and sanitation services. Its objectives are to ensure the proper utilization of ground- and surface water resources. In the DNA, a liaison office of international rivers was established. The Regional Water Administrations (ARAs) are basin authorities responsible for water development and management. They have administrative, organizational and financial autonomy but report to the DNA. The ARAs are also in charge of collecting hydrological information. DNA is organized in different Departments dealing with specific water-related issues: Rural Water (DAR), Urban Water (DAU), Sanitation (DAS), Water Resources Management (DGRH), Planning (GCP), etc.

The National Water Council (CNA) was created in 1991 as a consultative body to the Council of Ministers. In general, however, the CNA has not been very effective and coordination between agencies involved in water resources management has been a constant source of concern.

Figure shows the institutional structure of the Water sector in Mozambique. Agricultural water related issues are dealt in close collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADER).

Water management

At the national level, water management is the responsibility of the National Water Directorate (DNA), while at the regional level the five Regional Water Administrations (ARAs) are responsible. They control the irrigation systems and collect water fees. The only ARA fully operational by 2000 was ARA-Sul (South), while a second one, ARA-Centro, is under formation. ARA-Sul is in charge of the southern part of the country up to the Save River, where most problems of water management exist. In areas not yet covered by an ARA, the Provincial Directorates of Public Works and Housing are the authority responsible for water resources management in the province.

The territorial responsibility of the five ARAs is as follows:

ARA South, which includes all the basins south of the Save, and the Save River basin itself.
ARA Centre, which covers all the basins between the Save and Zambezi basins.
ARA Zambezi, which corresponds to the Zambezi basin.
ARA Centre-North, which covers the Zambezi basin as far as the Lurio River, including the Lurio basin.
ARA North, which covers all the basins north of the Lurio basin.

Policies and legislation

The 1991 Water Law is based on a river basin approach towards water management. According to this law, water and hydraulic structures of public interest are State property. By law, the Ministry of Public Works and Housing is responsible for water management. Furthermore, the social, economic and environmental impact of hydraulic works has to be assessed before their implementation.

National Water Policy

The National Water Policy^[1] was issued in 1995, listing nine principal policies with the main aim being to guarantee the attainment of a sustainable water supply and sanitation. It is a comprehensive policy strategy that encompasses all water-related aspects from supply and sanitation, IWRM, efficiency use, disaster mitigation and environment. The Policy has the aim to achieve the following medium (2015) and long-term (2025) objectives:

Halve the population without access to drinkable water by 2015
Improve sanitation services as essential basis to prevent water-borne diseases, for enhancing livelihoods and environment conservation
Improve water efficiency for economic development
Improve water use for environment conservation
Reduce vulnerability to droughts and floods
Promote conflict resolution and regional integration through IWRM

National Water Management Strategy

The main objective of the National Water Management Strategy is the effective implementation of the National Water Policy.

The Strategy encompasses all aspects of water resources, including surface water and groundwater, water quality and ecosystems protection, IWRM, legal, institutional and regulatory framework, transboundary river basin management, disaster assessment and management, capacity development.

The National Water Management Strategy^[2] was launched in 2007. An inter-sectoral, multidisciplinary Working Group (GTA) was established by the National Water Council for coordination and supervisions of the strategy implementation. The GTA is composed by technical officers from different ministries, NGOs, water users associations, academic institutions and private sector.

Rural Water and Sanitation Strategic Plan

Under the DNA responsibility, the Rural Water and Sanitation Strategic Plan (2006-2015)^[3] was launched in 2007 with the following objectives:

Improve quality and national coverage of rural water supply and sanitation services
Promote Rural Sanitation into the National Agenda
Broaden the range of technology options and institutional management models
Promote decentralization of institutional responsibilities

Main legislation

Act No. 16/91 defining internal waters as public domain

Source: FAOLEX

Date of text: 3 August 1991.
Source: UNEP-ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA COMPENDIUM. Boletim da República No. 31, 2nd Supplement, 3 August 1991, pp. 12–22.
Type of text: Legislation
Full text: available in Portuguese

Abstract: This Act consists of 76 articles. Article 1 defines all internal waters as State property, considering them as public waters. Waterworks, equipment and water infrastructures are under public domain as well. The purpose of this Act is to define water as public domain of State and establishes general policy in the water management sector, general legal regime for protection and conservation activities, exploitation of water resources, as well as defines competencies of the Government in this sector (art. 2).

Descriptors (Water): basic legislation; authorization/permit; registration; free water use; water rights; concession; water supply; irrigation; hydropower generation; industrial water use; navigation; effluent waste water/discharge

Implemented by

Ministerial Decision No. 70/97 establishing fees to be paid for water uses: 17 September 1997 [LEX-FAOC020405]

This Decree enforces the operation of the National Water Council created by Water Act No. 16/91. It consists of 5 articles which comprise the composition and functioning of the aforementioned institution under the Ministry of Water.

Decree No. 25/91 enforcing the operation of the National Water Council. - 14 November 1991 [LEX-FAOC020520]

Decree No. 26/91 creating the Regional Water Administrations (ARA). - 14

ETC ETC

BELOW HERE THE OLDER VERSION THAT WOULD BE REPLACED BY ALL ABOVE

Legislation

National or federal and state/provincial legislation concerning water resources

Law on Waters No. 16 of 3 August 1991 ("Ley de Aguas")[1], hereinafter: "1991 Water Law".

Ministerial Decree No. 134 of 17 November 1993, establishing the "ARA-Sul" (Regional Administration for Water Resources)[2], hereinafter, respectively: "the M.D. 134/93" and "ARA-Sul".

Constitutional Basis

Implicitly water is mentioned, since Art. 35 of the Constitution states that the ownership of natural resources located in the soil and in the subsoil is vested in the State. back to top of page

Ownership or other status of water resources

Ownership of water resources implicitly rests with the State. Art. 35 of the Constitution states that the ownership of natural resources located in the soil and in the subsoil is vested in the State.

Abstraction and/or use of water

Rights to abstract water

As a general rule, water can be abstracted and used subject to a concession or licence (article 21 of the 1991 Water Law). However, the Law grants the holders of land rights an original right to abstract and use water for household needs and for "normal" agricultural requirements, provided the rights of third parties and pre-existing traditional uses are not affected. Rights which accrue from a concession, a licence or the original grant above mentioned are all equally termed by the Law as "exclusive rights" (art. 23).

Rights linked to ownership of land

Yes, limited to the rights which accrue to the holders of land as a result of the original grant made under article 23 of the 1991 Water Law,which grants the holders of land rights an original right to abstract and use water for household needs and for "normal" agricultural requirements, provided the rights of third parties and pre-existing traditional uses are not affected.

Uses exempted from licensing requirements

Under the terms of Article 21 and 22 of the 1991 Water Law, the use of water resources by the public for domestic needs, for livestock watering and for small scale irrigation is free, provided that no artificial works are involved and that the quantity or quality of water resources are not affected significantly. Water must be used in accordance with "traditional practices"; however, the Law does not spell out what these practices are. Such rights are subject to "recognition", which is granted on condition that such uses reflect "traditional de facto practices" and they result in a beneficial use of the water.

Criteria used for considering applications and granting licenses

Licences cannot be granted under certain circumstances, such as scarcity of water, lack of effective need, possible hazards to the quantity or quality of waters, conflict with the public interest, potential harm to the rights of third parties (article 27 of the 1991 Water Law).

Recording of water abstraction licenses

The Law provides for a National Waters Registry, where water abstraction licences, concessions and wastewater authorizations, including those preexisting the Law and duly recognized in accordance with its provisions must be recorded. Also traditional uses of water resources, where recognized by the law, must be recorded into the Registry (articles 10 and 11 of the 1991 Water Law).

License terms and conditions

Under Article 33 of the 1991 Water Law, licences are granted for a period of 5 years, renewable, while concessions are granted for 50 years also renewable. Licences and concessions can be granted subject to specific terms and conditions and to the general obligation to make a rational use of water and to pay the applicable charges.

License suspension, variation, compensation

All references in this paragraph are to the 1991 Water Law.

Waters used under the provisions of article 23 ("exclusive rights" i.e. rights which accrue from a concession, a licence or the original rights granted to holders of land rights.) can be expropriated in case of drought or other natural calamities, when the water is needed for a public purpose. Compensation is payable.

Licences may be revoked (art. 34) for

failure to comply with the terms and conditions of the licence, illicit use of the right, harm to third parties' rights, and
the need to accommodate a competing licence/concession, force majeure and other emergency situations, provided that the needs for water can not be satisfied through a restriction of the licence.

Compensation is provided for when it is in the public interest to allocate water for other private uses.

Concessions may be varied (art. 38) due to

change of the circumstances which led to the grant,
force majeure and when a request is made by the concessionaire, and
need to accommodate the Water Master Plan (in this case compensation is payable).

Concessions may be revoked (art. 40) due to

failure to comply with the terms and conditions of the concession,
illicit use of the right or harm to third parties' rights,
inactivity for three consecutive years for no valid reasons,
non-payment of charges due, and
exceeding the pollution limits for waste waters.

Finally, concessions may be redeemed when water resources are needed for other priority uses, such as human consumption or for public health purposes. Compensation is payable (art. 41).

Transferability of water abstraction licenses

Under article 29 of the 1991 Water Law, licences and concessions are transferable subject to authorization of the Minister of Public Works and Waters, and can be inherited. However, if they have been granted for agricultural or industrial purposes, the licences must be transferred together with the land.

Protection of existing rights when new legislation enacted

The 1991 Water Law provides for the recognition, by the Government, of rights established under the previous legislation, so long as such rights have not been left idle for more than three years nor have been terminated due to force majeure or fortuitous events. Such recognition must be claimed within one year from the entry into force of the Law. Claims submitted after the expiration of the deadline will be dealt with like fresh applications for abstraction rights (art. 69). The Government will assent the claims and may limit the extent of a claim with a view to meeting the allocation criteria established by the Law (In terms of article 70, licences cannot be granted under certain circumstances, such as scarcity of water, lack of effective need, possible hazards to the quantity or quality of waters, conflict with the public interest, potential harm to the rights of third parties.). Under terms of article 71, also preexisting free water uses (termed "traditional uses") may be recognized, provided that they do not interfere with licences and concessions granted by the Government.

Government powers to respond to emergencies

No specific provisions are made in this regard. However, under article 57 of the 1991 Water Law, areas where water abstraction is made for human consumption, as well as the banks of artificial reservoirs and adjacent areas, are subject to the regime of "protected areas" set by the Land Law.

Monitoring and enforcement of water abstraction licenses

The monitoring and enforcement of water abstraction licenses are the responsibility of the Regional Water Resources Administrations (These are described in 6.1).

Charges payable for abstraction

Yes, under article 42 of the 1991 Water Law, holders of licences and concessions must pay a charge for the use of water, the amount of which is fixed by the National Water Resources Council.

Water pollution control

Permission required to discharge effluents

Under article 54 of the 1991 Water Law, any activity liable to pollute water resources, such as the discharge of wastewaters or of other substances into watercourses, is subject to an authorization to be granted by Regional Water Resources Administrations.

Exceptions to permission requirements

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Criteria used for considering applications and granting permits

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Recording of waste discharge permits

Yes, the 1991 Water Law provides for the recording of waste discharge authorizations in the National Waters Registry (art. 10).

Terms and conditions and / or duration of waste discharge permits

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Quality objectives or standards of waste discharge permits

Under terms of article 54 (2) and (3) of the 1991 Water Law, water quality standards and limits for the discharge of effluents are to be fixed by regulation.

License suspension / variation / compensation

Article 54 (4) of the 1991 Water Law states that waste discharges are subject to modifications and restrictions due to environmental reasons or in the public interest.

Transferability of waste discharge permits be transferred

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Protection of waste disposal activities in progress when new legislation enacted

This matter is not addressed by this legislation. However, as a matter of policy, no vested rights are recognized and new standards and restrictions will be phased in a gradual manner (article 54(4) of the 1991 Water Law).

Government powers to respond to emergencies

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Monitoring and enforcement of waste disposal permits

The monitoring and enforcement of water abstraction licenses are the responsibility of the Regional Water Resources Administrations (These are described in 6.1).

Charges payable against the disposal of waste into streams, lakes, underground aquifers and other water bodies

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Provisions in the legislation for the control of pollution of water resources from 'diffuse' sources

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Groundwater exploration and extraction

Regulation of groundwater exploration and extraction

Under article 62 of the 1991 Water Law, the exploration and extraction of groundwater are subject to the same regime as the "exclusive" use of water, with exceptions regarding people living in rural areas or in cities without a water distribution system.

Furthermore, the use of groundwater is conditional upon the good maintenance of works and the effective management of the waters (art. 63).

Government water administration

Responsibilities of the Government at central/national/federal level

Article 7 of the 1991 Water Law states the principle that the Government, through the Ministry of Public Works and Waters and in consultation with the National Water Resources Council, is charged with reviewing the condition of water resources and proposing actions, guidelines and legislative measures. It implements a water policy of fostering an effective management of water resources. For this purpose, a General Scheme for the Use of Water Resources is to be adopted by the Council of Ministers, while an inventory of all water resources is kept and periodically updated by the Minister of Public Works and Waters.

Special-purpose river basin-level administrations

According to article 18 of the 1991 Water Law, the management of water resources is the responsibility of the Regional Water Resources Administrations (RWRAs), which coincide with one or more rivers basins.

Their tasks include:

the preparation and implementation of water resources plans for the respective areas of competence;
granting and monitoring licences, concessions and authorizations for water use and wastewater disposal;
planning and execution of works, and
the imposition of fines and penalties.

The Statutes of RWRAs are approved by Ministerial Decree.

The Statute of the "ARA-Sul" Regional Water Resources Administration have been approved by Ministerial Decree No. 134 of 17 November 1993. In addition to the functions of all RWRAs, ARA-Sul is also charged with (Article 2 M.D. 134/93):

creating and managing the Water Registry;
authorizing artificial works and collecting the relevant charges;
proposing the designation of protected areas referred to in article 57 of the 1991 Water Law (These comprise areas where water abstraction is made for human consumption as well as the banks of artificial reservoirs and adjacent areas. See also 3.10);
recognizing the traditional uses of public water.

Under article 5 of the M.D. 134/93, the internal structure of ARA-SUL is made up of a Water Management Board, a General Director and a Board of Auditors.

Responsibilities assigned to local governments

This matter is not addressed by this legislation.

Provision for water user groups

It is a task of the Regional Water Resources Administrations to promote the formation of such associations and to involve them in the management of water resources (article 20 of the 1991 Water Law).

As to ARA-Sul, article 9 (1) of the M.D. 134/93 provides that, besides the representatives of the Ministries and of the local government, also a representative of the Users Associations of such area sit in the Water Management Board.